ARW Autumn

The most favorite point of the ARW Autumn class was Mark encouraged us to really enjoy leaning English. Indeed, I needed to study hard, but I enjoyed reading and writing. For instance, I could choose the essay topic that I was really interested in, and gain the advices to make my essay better at tutorial, so I was highly motivated and could tackle writing my essay.   

ARW Autumn class enhanced my English-language proficiency, because I gained deep understanding of the way to write an essay and the way to get main points. First, the explanation including elaborate handouts and tutorial helped me to enhance my English-language proficiency, especially reading and writing. First Mark explained us how to write an essay step by step by using not only SGW and LBH but also original handouts. The step by step process was suitable for me. For example, the ideas of hamburger structure and “ICE”, Introduce, Cite and Explain, were useful to think a structure of an essay. The “Essay Self-Evaluation” and “Checking Your Research Essay” were strongly helpful to review an essay by myself.  Second, tutorials solved my questions even though they were subtle ones. Second, Mark emphasized the importance to focus on main points. The advice changed my behavior to try to read and understand all contexts of articles. As a result, the speed of reading became faster than before. Thus, my English-language ability developed, but the level has not reached one I wanted. Thus I’m going to keep practicing making the use of the experience of the ARW Autumn class. 

Summary and Reaction to Diamond

Summary

The main point of Diamond is raising an alarm against arbitrary classification of humans into race by characters. This is why there are many perspectives to classify humans to race. Diamond introduces the ways in four steps.

1.      The first step is denying the “common sense” of view of race, that human is classified as race by using the difference of skin color. Diamond claims that the “common sense” is subjective and dangerous.

2.      The second step is to make it clear the difference between a “species” and a “sub species”. Diamond insists that human could be classified as species because human cannot interbreed with animal. However, it is impossible to classify human into subspecies, which is race.

3.      At the third step, Diamond points out that new different group appear by changing criteria, because there are two issues of classification. The first issue is classification will vary depending on which trait a researcher chooses, because each species has many traits. The second issue is no one knows how much difference of DNA is enough to classify. Thus, Diamond claims that the result of classification is not concordant and the hierarchy of classification is arbitrary and vague.

4.      At the forth step, Diamond introduced three causes why human traits vary from person to person. These causes are natural selection, sexual selection and no known function such as fingerprints.

In conclusion, Diamond argues that quick and arbitrary judgment about the classification of race based on characters poses a risk.

Reaction

　　I agree that the classification of race has a wide variety and is arbitrary. Judging from article of Diamond, humans do not have sub-species, race, because as often as we change criteria to classify human into race, the new result would appear.

　　His argument is not so persuasive, because there are some paragraphs which do not have any citation. For example, the paragraphs discussing if the variation of skin color, eye color and hair form enhance survival do not have any evidence supporting Diamond’s opinion.

　　I could not understand his intention shown in the sentence” The last thing we need now is to continue codifying all those different appearances into an arbitrary system of racial classification”. 

Summary and Reaction to Shreeve

Summary

There are two main issues that Shreeve wanted to discuss.

One issue is if the term race should be used by scientists and it is biological reality. Shreeve seems to agree that the term race should be used by scientists and it is biological reality. This is because he holds a positive attitude toward the techniques used in genetic analysis. For example, he recognizes the advantage of the examination using at a sample of DNA to tell one population form another in terms of race. Thus, it is assumed that he agrees scientists use the term race.

Another issue is in what case the term race should be used. Shreeve seems to claim that it should be used in police work while it should not be used in medical research. First, he states that the term race needs on the police investigation. For instance, he cites the Brues’s comment that when police wants to know person’s racial identity a forensic anthropologist should use the term race. On the other hand, he has a negative view on the using the term race in case of medical research. For example, though Tackett says Tackett and his associates demonstrated the speed at blood vessel from blacks returns to normal size is slower than that at one from whites do, Shreeve pointed out the defect of their experiment’s method. The defect is that the sample Tackett used was strongly biased. As presented above, Shreeve thinks if the term race should be used is depend on cases.

Reaction

Regarding the first issue, the term race has not reached the revel that scientists could or should use it as a scientific term and the concept of race has not possessed a biological reality. This is because race is related to only 6 % of genetic difference and limits still exist using it to distinguish one population from another population. Accordingly, scientists should keep on researching race until wrong interpretation formed by the former social stereotype becomes disappear.

              Regarding the second issue, I understand Shreeve’s opinion. I want to add the idea that people should take care of the influence and power of the term race in whatever case they use it.

Media Literacy Education: Creating a Compulsory Subject in Japan

When Japanese saw the nuclear accident in Fukushima accompanying the Great East earthquake (Fig.1.), most Japanese found out that the Japanese government and electronic companies have forced Japanese to believe that nuclear power plants were totally safe for a long time by using information manipulation through media (Koide 58). One of the main reasons why media easily controlled Japanese with information manipulation relates to the lack of media literacy.

Fig.1. The hydrogen explosion took place at Fukushima Daiichi power plant. Photograph by Fukushima Chuo Television from Yomiuri Online.

Media literacy here means the ability to interpret information critically from media, such as TV, newspaper, radio and internet, detect whether it is true or not and make active use of it as a final receiver (Tallim). For example, media literacy is a necessary prerequisite to make a reasonable decision about life protection and even the Japanese Constitution recognizes the right to require Japanese government to disclose information. More information flooded Japanese and Japanese could not handle much information in around 1990 according to the NHK research showing that the average time for Japanese to watch TV was about three and half hours per day in Japan (9). As Japanese recognized that Media strongly related to our life, the study how to pursue media literacy increased (Nakahashi 130). In 2002, the subject of Technology and Home Economics began to deal with information in junior high (Japan. MEXT, “Chugakkou”). In 2003, the information subject became a compulsory subject in high school (Japan. MEXT, “Kotogakkou”). However, neither subject has the consistent educational system to teach media literacy as defined above. In comparison, Canada had already started to teach media literacy as a part of English class in primary education and one subject in higher education in 1989. Thus, even though some approaches to enhance media literacy started in Japan, the level of education about media literacy has not reached the level to acquire the media literacy to make a rational decision.

              The Japanese government should create new compulsory subject to teach media literacy in elementary school and junior high school and focus on critical analysis skills. This is because students should learn media literacy, Japanese government should create the subject of media literacy, and there are ways to improve students’ media literacy.

I.         Reasons for students to acquire media literacy

The students should learn media literacy in elementary and junior high school, because 1) it protects their life in the future and 2) it is more effective to start to teach media literacy from childhood.

First, the improvement of media literacy is helpful to protect students’ life in the future. For example, at the Great East earthquake I could not obtain information from Japanese media how much and when the radioactive materials released in real time, in Tokyo. I thought the media concealed the information, so I tried to look for information by using foreign media and stayed home to escape from the radioactive materials. My media literacy protected my health. My family in Gunma followed my behavior and could protect their health. If more people had have media literacy to interpret critically and look for correct information including expertise’s opinion or foreign countries news, the people may have reduced over exposure to radiation. Therefore, the ability of media literacy is a strong tool to make students’ lives better in the future.

In addition, students should start to learn media literacy from first grade in elementary school and continue to study media literacy until third grade at junior high school. There are two reasons to support the idea. First, younger children have more flexibility comparing to adults. The children tend to accept new things more easily than adults. For instance, Nishi, the graduate student of Hyogo University of Teacher Education, and, Niwase, the student of the University, claim based on the questionnaire about behavior that lower grade students have more flexibility than higher grade students in elementary school (21-28). This shows that younger children are more flexible than elder ones. Second, it should take much time to form a habit to make use of media literacy. The reason is why “it takes a long time to get the habit after the ideas are taught” (Rowe 64). If the students form a habit through compulsory education, they will be able to make use of media literacy when they become older. As a result, when students graduate from junior high school, they would have basic media literacy enough to make a rational decision.

              Thus, the media literacy may help students to protect their life in the future, so they should start to learn it at the time when they could acquire it more effectively.

II.      Reasons for Japanese government to create the subject of media literacy

The level of education about media literacy in Japan is not enough, so the level should be enhanced by the Japanese government. For example, the current text of Technology and Home Economics subject explains the mechanism of a computer and the way to use it in junior high school, but only 14 pages of 211 pages deal with media literacy in the text (Ishida 178-191). In addition, the text of the information subject explains the mechanism of a computer and the way to correct and use information in high school, but only 31 of 477 pages focuses on media literacy in the text (Okamoto JohoA 24-26, 108-115, 151-153; Okamoto JohoB 152; Okamoto JohoC 36-48, 151-153). As seen above, the level of education about media literacy has not reached the level to acquire it. Thus, the Japanese government should create the subject of media literacy in elementary school and Junior high school, because 1) an improvement of media literacy relates to foster zest for life of students, and 2) it may be useful for Japanese to conquer global information warfare, which strengthens national power of Japan.

First, the process to attain the media literacy is effective to foster the ability to think and to make a decision which the 2008 primary and junior high school course of study emphasize (Japan. MEXT, Junior). Leaning, a senior lecturer in the School of Film and Media at the University of Winchester, claims that “a critical multimedia literacy approach is concerned with learning critical literacy skills” (44-45). For example, students can learn how to think critically and what the process to make a decision is like by thinking about why they become to like products through advertisement, why they buy the product and how the company controls them (Uesugi 58). Therefore, the Japanese government can benefit by introducing the media literacy subject into the curriculum in terms of goal achievement of the curriculum guidelines.

The media literacy also will help Japan to strengthen the nation's defenses. Some people may say that the Japanese government will not accept the improvement of media literacy of Japanese, because doing may make it difficult for the government to control Japanese easily. However, the global information warfare now takes place in politics. For example, terrorism may spread well-planned propaganda to all over the world, so the ability will be useful not only security specialists but also the ordinary people. Kohara, the researcher of Japanese National Institute of Informatics, claims that the ability to persuade people by using information to fight terrorism that uses information power is required (39-40). The national security may be enhanced after the ordinary people acquire media literacy through education. Therefore in term of improvement of national power Japanese government Japanese government can benefit from media literacy education.

In conclusion, the Japanese government should try to start media literacy education in elementary school and junior high school; because media literacy education meets the purpose of Course of study and increases national competitiveness.

III.   Ways to improve students’ media literacy

There are two steps to start the subject of media literacy. At first the Japanese government founds an organization for teachers, and then designs concrete classes of media literacy in elementary school and junior high school.

First, the Japanese government encourages universities such as International Christian University (Fig.2.) take as same role to foster teachers as Toronto University, which offers special certification course for media literacy education undertakes. The organization to instruct teachers to teach media literacy needs to have two requirements. One is the accumulated know-how relating to teacher-training course. Another is that the organization admits critical attitude. For example, the Toronto University plays a prominent role with a spirit of critical attitude as an institution to train highly-professional teachers (Uesugi 126). As with the Toronto University, International Christian University not only has the accumulated know-how about teacher training but also runs lectures to foster critical behavior through the lectures such as ELP. Therefore, International Christian University is an appropriate organization to instruct teachers.

Fig.2. International Christian University. Photograph by Mask from Kindai Kenchiku Sansaku.

              Second, in the new media literacy curriculum students should learn media literacy by using a three step approach. First, the students should practice detecting the purpose and a target audience of media in the first grade to third grade of elementary school. For example, a teacher shows a movie for children and then asks them who would watch to this (Canada. Ministry of Education.a. 45). The teacher deals with TV, movie, web site and video game because these media are familiar to them even when they are in first grade (Canada. Ministry of Education.b. 18, 95-97). Second, the students should evaluate media in the fourth grade to sixth grade of elementary school. For instance, a teacher promotes the students to write an opinion critically against newspaper and gather evidence to support their opinion (Canada. Ministry of Education.a. 89). Third, the students could create innovative media to convince other people of their idea in junior high school (Canada. Ministry of Education.b. 67-68). For example, students could make up a team and decide what they want to argue such as that school lunches should be more delicious. They think about effective way to tell their idea by using computer technique such as power point and video camera. As a result, students can learn how media literacy works from both the receiver side and the producer side.

              Thus, by incorporating good experience about media literacy education of Canada to one of Japan and making use of the existing organization like ICU, the Japanese government can prepare to start to the subject of media literacy. 

Conclusion

In conclusion, the development of media literacy is not only useful for students but also meets the school course of study of Japanese government, so there is significant value for the Japanese government to establish a new media literacy subject as a crucial project. The government is required to engage in careful planning from the long-term view to achieve the project. Specifically it is an indispensable element to get teachers to have the expertise to teaching, and to make the explicit time schedule put the subject of media literacy to the curriculum in the elementary school and junior high school. The opposition from within one part of the government may be expected, but as showing strong will, explicit plan and the largeness of national benefit, Japanese must encourage the government to address the plan and to implement it.

Works Cited

Canada. Ministry of Education.a. “The Ontario Curriculum Grade 1 and 8 Language.” Canada Ministry of Education, www.edu.gov.on.ca. Web. 14 Oct. 2011.

---.b. “The Ontario Curriculum Grade 9 and 10 English.” Canada Ministry of Education, www.edu.gov.on.ca. Web. 14 Oct, 2011

Ishida, Haruhisa, et al. Gijutsu Bunya [Technology], Tokyo: Tokyo Shoseki, 2002. Print.

Japan. MEXT. “Chugakkou Gakushushido Yoryo [Junior High School Course of Study]. “ Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, www.mext.go.jp. Web. 31 Oct, 2011

---. “Junior High School Course of Study.” Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, www.mext.go.jp. Web. 14 Oct, 2011

---. “Kotogakkou Gakushushido Yoryo [High School Course of Study] “Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, www.mext.go.jp. Web. 31 Oct, 2011

Kohara, Masahiro. “Information power and international security.” Progress in Informatics No.1, (2005): 39-46. Print.

Koide, Hiroaki. Kakusareru Genshiryoku Kaku no Shinjitu [Hidden issue of nuclear power]. Tokyo: Soushisya, 2010.Print.

Leaning, Marcus. Issues in Information and Media Literacy: Education, Practice and Pedagogy. California: Informing Science Press, 2009. Print.

Nakahashi, Yu. “Media Literacy Kenkyu no Doko to Kadai [Review and Issues of research on Media Literacy].” Proceedings of Faculty of Human Culture and Sciences in Fukuyama University. 5. (2005): 130. Print.

NHK Hosobunka Kenkyujo. “2010 Kokumin Seikatcu Jikan Chosa Houkokusho [The report of national living hour research]” NHK. (2010): 8-12. Print.

Nishi,Yasutaka. Niwase, Keisuke. “Feature and Change of the Creative Attitude of Elementary.” Rikakyouikukenkyu (2003). 21-28. Print

Okamoto, Toshio, eds. JohoA [InformationA], Tokyo: Jikkyo Shuppan, 2004. Print.

---. JohoB [InformationB], Tokyo: Jikkyo Shuppan, 2004. Print.

---. JohoC [InformationC], Tokyo: Jikkyo Shuppan, 2004. Print.

Rowe, Stuart H. Habit Formation and the Science of Teaching: Montana: Kessinger Publishing, 2005. Print.

Tallim, Jane. What is Media Literacy?. Media Awareness Network, 2010. Web. 31 Oct 2011.

Uesugi. Yoshimi. Canada no Media Literacy Kyoiku [Media literacy education in Canada]. Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 2008. Print.